Optimizing Drawing Ability Through Working Memory Effects: Methods for Novice and Expert Learners
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.35877/454RI.daengku4520Keywords:
Model Drawing, Psychology, Expert level, Novice level, ProportionAbstract
This research aims to develop two model-drawing methods based on students’ levels of competency, guided by a psychological approach to working memory. The study adopts a qualitative method with a case study design. Observations were carried out by analyzing six samples of model drawings produced by students in the Visual Arts Education program, Faculty of Art and Design. The drawings were categorized into two levels, expert and novice, based on students’ performance in proportion, coloring, and detail. The findings show that (1) three students belong to the expert level, producing highly impressive model drawings whose proportions, coloring, and details are close to perfection; (2) three students fall into the novice level, with their proportions, coloring, and object forms still at a minimal or below-standard quality; and (3) one commonly used method is found to be unsuitable for all learners. Therefore, this research proposes two model-drawing methods according to students’ competency levels: the Golden Ratio technique for expert-level students and a proportion-and-shape-based technique for novice learners.
References
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Baceviciute, S., Lucas, G., Terkildsen, T., & Makransky, G. (2022). Investigating the redundancy principle in immersive virtual reality environments: An eye?tracking and EEG study. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(1), 120–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12595
Bates, D., & Moore, J. (2022). High-fidelity simulation for graduate athletic training students and impact on students’ learning experience. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 18, 015. https://doi.org/10.58459/rptel.2023.18015
Belfiore, E. B., Zasso, F., & Santos, F. N. (2022). Canadian fellowship experience: The different challenges and emotions faced by an International Medical Graduate and mitigation strategies. Canadian Medical Education Journal. https://doi.org/10.36834/cmej.74696
Ben Chikha, H., Zoudji, B., & Khacharem, A. (2023). Using pointing gestures to convey tactical information: Investigating the roles of expertise and complexity. Psychological Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-023-01806-y
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Buchner, J., Buntins, K., & Kerres, M. (2022). The impact of augmented reality on cognitive load and performance: A systematic review. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(1), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12617
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2015). The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 689–704. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000018
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2016). Relations between the worked example and generation effects on immediate and delayed tests. Learning and Instruction, 45, 20–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.06.007
Chiu, T. K. F., Jong, M. S., & Mok, I. A. C. (2020). Does learner expertise matter when designing emotional multimedia for learners of primary school mathematics? Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(5), 2305–2320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09775-4
Clarke, N. A., Stow, S., Ruebling, C., & Kayona, F. (2006). Developing Standards-Based Curricula and Assessments: Lessons from the Field. The Clearing House, 79(6), 258–261.
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Emhardt, S. N., Kok, E., van Gog, T., Brandt-Gruwel, S., van Marlen, T., & Jarodzka, H. (2023). Visualizing a Task Performer’s Gaze to Foster Observers’ Performance and Learning—A Systematic Literature Review on Eye Movement Modeling Examples. Educational Psychology Review, 35(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09731-7
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Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Richters, C., Radkowitsch, A., Schmidmaier, R., Weidenbusch, M., & Fischer, M. R. (2023). Learners’ adjustment strategies following impasses in simulations—Effects of prior knowledge. Learning and Instruction, 83, 101632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101632
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J. (2001). When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(3), 579.
Kinnear, G., Wood, A. K., & Gratwick, R. (2022). Designing and evaluating an online course to support transition to university mathematics. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 53(1), 11–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2021.1962554
Li, Y., Wang, X., Thomsen, J. B., Nahabedian, M. Y., Ishii, N., Rozen, W. M., Long, X., & Ho, Y.-S. (2020). Research trends and performances of breast reconstruction: A bibliometric analysis. Annals of Translational Medicine, 8(22), 1529–1529. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm-20-3476
Maddock, A., McCusker, P., Blair, C., & Roulston, A. (2022). The Mindfulness-Based Social Work and Self-Care Programme: A Mixed Methods Evaluation Study. The British Journal of Social Work, 52(5), 2760–2777. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcab203
Manolo Esteban Bravo Encalada, Diego Alejandro Lima Dominguez, Pablo Andrés Astudillo Pacheco, & Manuel Estuardo Bravo Calderón. (2023). Comparation between golden rectangle and ideal facial height proposed by the Silva Cephalometric Method (MCS) through digital analysis (NemoStudio 2022) in a university population. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 17(3), 464–470. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2023.17.3.0141
Marilyn Dayana Argudo Velasteguí, Jeny Maricela Bermeo Cabrera, & Valeria Alexandra Juela Bravo. (2023). Correlation of the golden proportion between the intercanine distance and the vertical measurement of the middle third of the face in fourth year students of the faculty of dentistry of the University of Cuenca, 2023. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 17(1), 578–588. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2023.17.1.0121
Moridani, M. K., Behbahani, S., & Nejati, F. (2023). Designing an Expert System for Ranking Facial Attractiveness Based on Deep Learning and Fuzzy Inference System [Preprint]. In Review. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2380160/v3
Nievelstein, F., van Gog, T., van Dijck, G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2013). The worked example and expertise reversal effect in less structured tasks: Learning to reason about legal cases. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(2), 118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.12.004
Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2020). Cognitive-Load Theory: Methods to Manage Working Memory Load in the Learning of Complex Tasks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(4), 394–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420922183
Patel, S. (n.d.). The effects of difficulty and prior expertise levels in educational video games.
Peng, R., Inoue, K., & Hara, K. (2022). Generating Face Images Based on Golden Ratios for Facial Beauty. Journal of the Institute of Industrial Applications Engineers, 10(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.12792/JIIAE.10.11
Pollock, E., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2002). Assimilating complex information. Learning and Instruction, 12(1), 61–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(01)00016-0
Porter, A., Graham, S., Myles, F., & Holmes, B. (2022). Creativity, challenge and culture in the languages classroom: A response to the Ofsted Curriculum Research Review. The Language Learning Journal, 50(2), 208–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2022.2046358
Ross, K., Sarkar, P., Rodenburg, D., Ruberto, A., Hungler, P., Szulewski, A., Howes, D., & Etemad, A. (2019). Toward Dynamically Adaptive Simulation: Multimodal Classification of User Expertise Using Wearable Devices. Sensors, 19(19), 4270. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194270
Salmela-Aro, K., Upadyaya, K., Ronkainen, I., & Hietajärvi, L. (2022). Study Burnout and Engagement During COVID-19 Among University Students: The Role of Demands, Resources, and Psychological Needs. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23(6), 2685–2702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-022-00518-1
Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed). Pearson.
Shadiev, R., & Sun, A. (2020). Using texts generated by STR and CAT to facilitate student comprehension of lecture content in a foreign language. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 32(3), 561–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-019-09246-7
Solé-Llussà, A., Aguilar, D., & Ibáñez, M. (2022). Video-worked examples to support the development of elementary students’ science process skills: A case study in an inquiry activity on electrical circuits. Research in Science & Technological Education, 40(2), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2020.1786361
Sweller, J. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive Load Theory. Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4
Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2(1), 59–89. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3
Tchalenko, J. (2009). Segmentation and accuracy in copying and drawing: Experts and beginners. Vision Research, 49(8), 791–800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2009.02.012
van de Pol, J., Mercer, N., & Volman, M. (2019). Scaffolding Student Understanding in Small-Group Work: Students’ Uptake of Teacher Support in Subsequent Small-Group Interaction. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 28(2), 206–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2018.1522258
van Gog, T., Kester, L., Dirkx, K., Hoogerheide, V., Boerboom, J., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2015). Testing After Worked Example Study Does Not Enhance Delayed Problem-Solving Performance Compared to Restudy. Educational Psychology Review, 27(2), 265–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9297-3
van Merriënboer, J. (2023). Learning in Simulated and Real Environments: Maastricht University. https://doi.org/10.26481/spe.20230330jm
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 147–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0
Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2020). What can be learned from growth mindset controversies? American Psychologist, 75(9), 1269–1284. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000794
Yuwono, A. A. (2019). KAJIAN ELEMEN VISUAL ARSITEKTUR TERKAIT PERSEPSI ANAK USIA DINI TERHADAP BANGUNAN. Idealog: Ide dan Dialog Desain Indonesia, 4(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.25124/idealog.v4i1.1557
Zhi, R., Price, T. W., Marwan, S., Milliken, A., Barnes, T., & Chi, M. (2019). Exploring the Impact of Worked Examples in a Novice Programming Environment. Proceedings of the 50th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1145/3287324.3287385
Armougum, A., Orriols, E., Gaston-Bellegarde, A., Marle, C. J.-L., & Piolino, P. (2019). Virtual reality: A new method to investigate cognitive load during navigation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 65, 101338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2019.101338
Atkinson, R. K. (2000). Learning from Examples: Instructional Principles from the Worked Examples Research.
Azman, A. N., & Johari, M. (2022). Investigating the Effectiveness of Videos Designed Using Cognitive Load Theory on Biology Students’ Academic Achievement. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 11(3), 461–468. https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v11i3.37324
Baceviciute, S., Lucas, G., Terkildsen, T., & Makransky, G. (2022). Investigating the redundancy principle in immersive virtual reality environments: An eye?tracking and EEG study. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(1), 120–136. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12595
Bates, D., & Moore, J. (2022). High-fidelity simulation for graduate athletic training students and impact on students’ learning experience. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 18, 015. https://doi.org/10.58459/rptel.2023.18015
Belfiore, E. B., Zasso, F., & Santos, F. N. (2022). Canadian fellowship experience: The different challenges and emotions faced by an International Medical Graduate and mitigation strategies. Canadian Medical Education Journal. https://doi.org/10.36834/cmej.74696
Ben Chikha, H., Zoudji, B., & Khacharem, A. (2023). Using pointing gestures to convey tactical information: Investigating the roles of expertise and complexity. Psychological Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-023-01806-y
Britz, T. (n.d.). The beauty of the Golden Ratio.
Buchner, J., Buntins, K., & Kerres, M. (2022). The impact of augmented reality on cognitive load and performance: A systematic review. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(1), 285–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12617
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2015). The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(3), 689–704. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000018
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2016). Relations between the worked example and generation effects on immediate and delayed tests. Learning and Instruction, 45, 20–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.06.007
Chiu, T. K. F., Jong, M. S., & Mok, I. A. C. (2020). Does learner expertise matter when designing emotional multimedia for learners of primary school mathematics? Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(5), 2305–2320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09775-4
Clarke, N. A., Stow, S., Ruebling, C., & Kayona, F. (2006). Developing Standards-Based Curricula and Assessments: Lessons from the Field. The Clearing House, 79(6), 258–261.
Cohen, L. (2017). Research Methods in Education (8th ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315456539
Emhardt, S. N., Kok, E., van Gog, T., Brandt-Gruwel, S., van Marlen, T., & Jarodzka, H. (2023). Visualizing a Task Performer’s Gaze to Foster Observers’ Performance and Learning—A Systematic Literature Review on Eye Movement Modeling Examples. Educational Psychology Review, 35(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09731-7
Glückler, J., Winch, C., & Punstein, A. M. (Eds.). (2023). Professions and Proficiency (Vol. 18). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-24910-5
Hahnel, C., Schoor, C., Kroehne, U., Goldhammer, F., Mahlow, N., & Artelt, C. (2019). The role of cognitive load in university students’ comprehension of multiple documents. Zeitschrift Für Pädagogische Psychologie, 33(2), 105–118. https://doi.org/10.1024/1010-0652/a000238
Hampton, M. (2009). Figure Drawing design and invention.
Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Richters, C., Radkowitsch, A., Schmidmaier, R., Weidenbusch, M., & Fischer, M. R. (2023). Learners’ adjustment strategies following impasses in simulations—Effects of prior knowledge. Learning and Instruction, 83, 101632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101632
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., & Sweller, J. (2001). When problem solving is superior to studying worked examples. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(3), 579.
Kinnear, G., Wood, A. K., & Gratwick, R. (2022). Designing and evaluating an online course to support transition to university mathematics. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 53(1), 11–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2021.1962554
Li, Y., Wang, X., Thomsen, J. B., Nahabedian, M. Y., Ishii, N., Rozen, W. M., Long, X., & Ho, Y.-S. (2020). Research trends and performances of breast reconstruction: A bibliometric analysis. Annals of Translational Medicine, 8(22), 1529–1529. https://doi.org/10.21037/atm-20-3476
Maddock, A., McCusker, P., Blair, C., & Roulston, A. (2022). The Mindfulness-Based Social Work and Self-Care Programme: A Mixed Methods Evaluation Study. The British Journal of Social Work, 52(5), 2760–2777. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcab203
Manolo Esteban Bravo Encalada, Diego Alejandro Lima Dominguez, Pablo Andrés Astudillo Pacheco, & Manuel Estuardo Bravo Calderón. (2023). Comparation between golden rectangle and ideal facial height proposed by the Silva Cephalometric Method (MCS) through digital analysis (NemoStudio 2022) in a university population. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 17(3), 464–470. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2023.17.3.0141
Marilyn Dayana Argudo Velasteguí, Jeny Maricela Bermeo Cabrera, & Valeria Alexandra Juela Bravo. (2023). Correlation of the golden proportion between the intercanine distance and the vertical measurement of the middle third of the face in fourth year students of the faculty of dentistry of the University of Cuenca, 2023. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 17(1), 578–588. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2023.17.1.0121
Moridani, M. K., Behbahani, S., & Nejati, F. (2023). Designing an Expert System for Ranking Facial Attractiveness Based on Deep Learning and Fuzzy Inference System [Preprint]. In Review. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2380160/v3
Nievelstein, F., van Gog, T., van Dijck, G., & Boshuizen, H. P. A. (2013). The worked example and expertise reversal effect in less structured tasks: Learning to reason about legal cases. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 38(2), 118–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.12.004
Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2020). Cognitive-Load Theory: Methods to Manage Working Memory Load in the Learning of Complex Tasks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(4), 394–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420922183
Patel, S. (n.d.). The effects of difficulty and prior expertise levels in educational video games.
Peng, R., Inoue, K., & Hara, K. (2022). Generating Face Images Based on Golden Ratios for Facial Beauty. Journal of the Institute of Industrial Applications Engineers, 10(1), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.12792/JIIAE.10.11
Pollock, E., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2002). Assimilating complex information. Learning and Instruction, 12(1), 61–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4752(01)00016-0
Porter, A., Graham, S., Myles, F., & Holmes, B. (2022). Creativity, challenge and culture in the languages classroom: A response to the Ofsted Curriculum Research Review. The Language Learning Journal, 50(2), 208–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2022.2046358
Ross, K., Sarkar, P., Rodenburg, D., Ruberto, A., Hungler, P., Szulewski, A., Howes, D., & Etemad, A. (2019). Toward Dynamically Adaptive Simulation: Multimodal Classification of User Expertise Using Wearable Devices. Sensors, 19(19), 4270. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19194270
Salmela-Aro, K., Upadyaya, K., Ronkainen, I., & Hietajärvi, L. (2022). Study Burnout and Engagement During COVID-19 Among University Students: The Role of Demands, Resources, and Psychological Needs. Journal of Happiness Studies, 23(6), 2685–2702. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-022-00518-1
Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed). Pearson.
Shadiev, R., & Sun, A. (2020). Using texts generated by STR and CAT to facilitate student comprehension of lecture content in a foreign language. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 32(3), 561–581. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-019-09246-7
Solé-Llussà, A., Aguilar, D., & Ibáñez, M. (2022). Video-worked examples to support the development of elementary students’ science process skills: A case study in an inquiry activity on electrical circuits. Research in Science & Technological Education, 40(2), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2020.1786361
Sweller, J. (1998). Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design.
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive Load Theory. Springer New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4
Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The Use of Worked Examples as a Substitute for Problem Solving in Learning Algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2(1), 59–89. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci0201_3
Tchalenko, J. (2009). Segmentation and accuracy in copying and drawing: Experts and beginners. Vision Research, 49(8), 791–800. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2009.02.012
van de Pol, J., Mercer, N., & Volman, M. (2019). Scaffolding Student Understanding in Small-Group Work: Students’ Uptake of Teacher Support in Subsequent Small-Group Interaction. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 28(2), 206–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508406.2018.1522258
van Gog, T., Kester, L., Dirkx, K., Hoogerheide, V., Boerboom, J., & Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L. (2015). Testing After Worked Example Study Does Not Enhance Delayed Problem-Solving Performance Compared to Restudy. Educational Psychology Review, 27(2), 265–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9297-3
van Merriënboer, J. (2023). Learning in Simulated and Real Environments: Maastricht University. https://doi.org/10.26481/spe.20230330jm
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Sweller, J. (2005). Cognitive Load Theory and Complex Learning: Recent Developments and Future Directions. Educational Psychology Review, 17(2), 147–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-005-3951-0
Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2020). What can be learned from growth mindset controversies? American Psychologist, 75(9), 1269–1284. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000794
Yuwono, A. A. (2019). KAJIAN ELEMEN VISUAL ARSITEKTUR TERKAIT PERSEPSI ANAK USIA DINI TERHADAP BANGUNAN. Idealog: Ide dan Dialog Desain Indonesia, 4(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.25124/idealog.v4i1.1557
Zhi, R., Price, T. W., Marwan, S., Milliken, A., Barnes, T., & Chi, M. (2019). Exploring the Impact of Worked Examples in a Novice Programming Environment. Proceedings of the 50th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1145/3287324.3287385
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2025-12-31
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Djirong, A. ., & Makawi, F. E. (2025). Optimizing Drawing Ability Through Working Memory Effects: Methods for Novice and Expert Learners. Daengku: Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Innovation, 5(6), 782–792. https://doi.org/10.35877/454RI.daengku4520
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Copyright (c) 2025 Faizal Erlangga Makawi, Agussalim Djirong
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